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Rhode Island needs to adopt an ecosystem approach to marine aquacultureBy Barry A. Costa-Pierce At a United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) workshop on an ecosystem approach to aquaculture (EAA) in Mallorca, Spain, in 2007, an EAA was defined as “a strategy for the integration of the activity within the wider ecosystem such that it promotes sustainable development, equity, and resilience of interlinked social-ecological systems.” Simultaenously, FAO commissioned a number of international reviews on ecological aquaculture. I was privileged to complete one on marine aquaculture (Costa-Pierce, 2008). Principles, Key Issues, and Scales On the other hand, aquaculture impacts must be seen in context by comparing them with those from other food producing sectors such as agriculture and livestock farming. Most terrestrial food producing systems, especially intensive ones, were achieved after drastically transforming the landscape (e.g., clearing native forests and grasslands for agriculture with permanent impacts on the original bio-diversity). But we grew to accept those impacts; while intensive aquaculture is a rather new development worldwide. It’s important to monitor aquaculture effects on biodiversity to ensure that such effects do not result in significant losses of ecosystem functions and services. The second principle states that aquaculture should improve human well being and equity for all stakeholders. This principle ensures that aqua-culture provides equal opportunities for development, and that the benefits from aquaculture are properly shared, while the activity does not result in any detriment for any society, especially for the poor. It ensures both food security and safety as key components of soci-etal well being. The last principle says that aquaculture should be developed in the context of other sectors, policies, and goals. This principle recognizes the important interactions between aquaculture and the larger ecosystem; in particular, the influence of the surrounding natural and social environments on aquaculture. Aquaculture does not take place in isolation, and, in most cases, is not the only human activity impacting water bodies, which worldwide are more heavily impacted by agriculture, industrial activities, trash, and sewage wastes. This principle also acknowledges the opportunity of coupling aquaculture activities with other producing sectors in order to promote materials and energy recycling. Spatial Scales Farm Scale Planning and Assessment EAA assessment at the farm scale entails an evaluation of economic, ecological, and social programs at the farm that account for the wider eco-system and social impacts of farm-level aquaculture developments, including environmental and social impact assessments, use of better management practices, and use of restoration, remediation, and mitigation methods. Proper site selection, production intensity levels, use of species (exotic vs. native), use of appropriate farming systems and technologies, and the socioeconomic impacts at the farm are considered. Regional Scale—Coastal Water Body/Aquaculture Zone—Planning and Assessment Planning for an EAA at the aquaculture zone/regional level is more relevant to socioeconomic and political issues, but there may be some common and very relevant ecosystem issues; for example, diseases, seed and feeds trade, climatic and landscape condi-tions, and others. In practical terms, many management issues are similar at the watershed and aquaculture zone/region. Assessment of an EAA at this scale will address technical issues of farm interactions and densities, as well as assessment of aquaculture’s inclusion as a part of governance frameworks; for example, as a part of, or separate from, an overall framework of other natural resource systems, such as fisheries and forestry, integrated coastal zone management, or integrated land-water resource management planning and implementation. Assessment would consider regional issues such as escapees, disease transmission, contamination to/from aquaculture, and user competition/conflicts for land and water use. Social considerations at the regional scale would be, for example, aquaculture’s role in rural development, comprehensive planning for the beneficial multiplier effects of aquaculture on jobs and the regional economy, and considerations of aquaculture’s impacts on indigenous communities. A regional EAA also must consider the governance of aquaculture developments and opportunity costs, including existing scenarios and alternatives for human development. While an EAA should be the responsibility of a lead aquaculture agency, its full implementation will require government to consider alternative methods of governance and use innovative approaches so that agencies responsible for managing activities impacting aquatic ecosystems (e.g., capture fisheries, coastal zone development, watershed management organizations, agriculture, forestry, industrial developments) can regularly communicate, cooperate, and collaborate. The design of aquaculture management zones could be a relevant tool, particularly when the benefits of integrated aquaculture, polyculture, or integrated aquaculture-fisheries initiatives are being considered. Global Scale Planning and Assessment Assessment of progress towards an EAA entails evaluation of issues such as availability of agriculture and fisheries feedstocks for aquaculture feeds, the broader ecosystem, economic and social impacts of aquaculture on fisheries and agriculture resources, and society’s infrastructure. Applications of tools such as lifecycle assessments of aquaculture commodities are useful at this level. Other relevant issues include markets and marketing, social sustainability (social capital, goods, and social opportunities), and the application of innovative social enterprise management guidelines and tools in the aquaculture industry. Toward Widespread Adoption of an EAA Aquaculture is not a uniform “industry” or a standard set of practices easy to classify—or label—and regulate. There is a wide diversity of systems and species that can be classified in many different ways. For example, the integration of aquaculture, agriculture, and animal husbandry on small farms in Asia creates definable aquaculture ecosystem types that closely resemble natural ecosystems having their own structure, closely coupled nutrient recycling pathways, and eco-logical management strategies. Aquaculture should be proactive, promote and develop itself as the world’s most ecologically integrated industry, and adopt this new strategy—that of a community-based, sustainable, ecological aquaculture industry that produces ecologically and socially certified products. In this regard, the recent international guidelines developed for shrimp farming are a major advance (FAO et al., 2006). In the 21st century, aquaculture developers will need to spend as much time on the technological advances coming to the field as they do in designing ecological approaches to aquaculture development that clearly exhibit stewardship of the environment. For aquaculture development to proceed to the point where it will be recognized worldwide as the most efficient contributor to new protein production, clear, unambiguous linkages between aqua-culture and the environment must be created, fostered, and communicated. And the complementary roles of aquaculture in contributing to environmental sustainability, rehabilitation, and enhancement must be developed and clearly articulated to a highly concerned, increasingly educated, and involved public (Costa-Pierce, 2008). In Rhode Island, the R.I. Coastal Resources Management Council (CRMC)—the state’s lead aquaculture regulatory and management agency—has made important strides toward implementing the principles of an EAA. The Rhode Island Aquaculture Initiative demonstrated the simultaneous economic and environmental benefits of shellfish aquaculture in state waters (Tallman and Forrester, 2007). Combined with improved market demands, water quality, and new technologies, CRMC received a number of applications for new and expansion of existing shellfish farms, especially in Rhode Island’s coastal lagoons. Recognizing the potential for user conflicts (social issues) and the need to better determine ecological carrying capacities, in 2007, the CRMC Working Group on Aquaculture Regulations decided to take another important step towards implementing an EAA by forming a working group to develop information on the limits to aquaculture development in Rhode Island. One subcommittee report summarized issues of water quality, diseases, invasive species, physical impacts of aquaculture gear, essential fish habitat, carrying capacity, and provided guidance on an EAA (Bengtson et al., 2007). For your reference: Costa-Pierce, B.A. 2008. An Ecosystem Approach to Marine Aquaculture. U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy. In press. Soto, D. 2008. Principles of an Ecosystem Approach to Aquaculture. U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy. In press. Tallman, J.C. and G.E. Forrester. 2007. Oyster grow-out cages function as artificial reefs for temperate fishes. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 136:790–799. U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization, Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia, U.N. Environment Programme, The World Bank, and World Wildlife Fund. 2006. International Principles for Responsible Shrimp Farming. Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand. —Barry A. Costa-Pierce is Director of Rhode Island Sea Grant and a URI Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science Professor.
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